Grammar and Punctuation
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Commas, Semicolons, & Colons
Nonessential Commas
Use commas to set off nonessential information in the middle of a sentence and to set off nonessential clauses that begin with which.
“Nonessential” refers to information that could be omitted from the sentence leaving a complete sentence (a subject-verb unit expressing a complete idea) that retains the main idea you wish to express.
The end result looks like this:
Introductory Clauses
If your sentence begins with a phrase other than the subject, this is called an introductory element.
Commas follow or surround introductory phrases, clauses, and elements to indicate to the reader that the main clause containing the sentence subject and the main verb of the sentence are yet to come (e.g., In the beginning, I did not know comma rules.).
Introductory elements are sometimes phrases from the sentence that are transposed or moved to the front of the sentence out of their natural sentence order. Commas are used to indicate this as well (e.g., Because I did not know comma rules, I visited the OCWC website.).
The end result should look like this:
Joining Independent Clauses with a Comma
Use commas to connect two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.
An independent clause is a clause (part of a sentence) that could be a complete sentence on its own. To join multiple independent clauses, coordinating conjunctions can be used. Coordinating conjunctions are words such as the FANBOYs: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet. They add information on the relationship between two independent clauses, such as contradiction, summation, or addition.
The end result should look like this:
Joining Independent Clauses with a Semicolon
A semicolon also links two clauses, but in the case of the semicolon, the clauses must both be independent clauses. A semicolon serves the same function as either (a) a period or (b) a comma + a coordinating conjunction. When you use a semicolon, you do not need to add that coordinating conjunction.
Delineating Lists
Commas also help writers delineate words or phrases in a list. To join multiple elements in a list, insert a comma between each item, for example: “I love commas, semi-colons, and colons”.
Notice the comma before the “and” and final item in the list above? This is called a serial comma (also known as the Oxford comma), and it is required when writing in APA style.
When listing words or phrases, if you have three or more in the list, then you need to place a comma before the coordinating conjunction (and, or) that precedes the final element in the list.
The end result should look like this:
Colons
Use a colon after a complete introductory clause (one that could be its own sentence, aka an independent clause) to introduce a list.
Use a colon after a complete introductory clause (one that could be its own sentence, aka an independent clause) to introduce a final phrase or thought or clause that illustrates or amplifies the initial clause. The end result should look like this:
NOTE: Do not use a colon to introduce a list that begins with the phrase such as or including as generally use of these phrases means that what precedes the list is not an introductory clause.
Incorrect
I have several favorite colors, including: blue, green, and purple.
Correct
I have several favorite colors, including blue, green, and purple.
Incorrect
Bold colors, such as: blue, green, and purple, are common favorites among kids.
Correct
Bold colors, such as blue, green, and purple, are common favorites among kids.
Dashes & Hyphens
Explanation and Examples
There are two types of dashes, the en dash and the em dash (also written as N-dash and M-dash).
Use em dashes to indicate a sudden disruption in a sentence (but be cautious not to overuse this tool as doing so can weaken the academic tone of the writing), like this:
I tested two participants—one from my control group and one from my experiment group—and both passed.
Note: Em dashes are longer and there are no spaces between the words and the dashes. Click here to learn how to create an em dash in MS Word.
Use en dashes to connect words in a compound adjective when those words are of equal weight (i.e., when the dash could be replaced by the word “to”), or importance, like this:
I missed the Chicago–Atlanta flight, and so now I’m being rerouted through Miami.
Participants ranged in age from 8–10 years old. (Note: preference here would be to use the word "to," like this: Participants ranged in age from 8 to 10 years old.)
Note: En dashes are shorter than em dashes but longer than hyphens, and in APA Style, there is no space between the words and the dash.
Use hyphens to connect compound words. Unfortunately, not all dictionaries agree on when a compound should be two words, a single word, or a hyphenated word. APA follows the Webster’s Collegiate dictionary, so if you’re ever unsure of how to write a compound, first check there.
You’ll almost always hyphenate compounds and what are called temporary compounds, which are compounds made up of two or more words that do not usually occur together to make a point or describe something specific, when they precede what they modify, like this:
This was a six-trial study.
I wanted to talk to the ninth-grade students.
The book discussed middle-class families and urban sprawl.
I called Group A the hat-wearing group. (this is a temporary compound!)
The client is a 58-year-old female. (Note: there is no hyphen when the age follows the subject, like this: The client is 58 years old.)
Note: In APA style, you will hyphenate all self- compounds, such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, and so forth.
Do not hyphenate words that begin with the following prefixes: non, pre, post, re, semi, and many others (check Table 4.2 on page 99 of your 6th Edition APA Manual). For example:
Pretest, posttest, semistructured, reevaluate, nonessential
Note: You might find that MS Word marks these words as misspelled, so you’ll need to just ignore that!.
Use a minus sign when expressing mathematical equations, but use a hyphen for negative numbers, like this:
a - b = c
-6.5%
Note: This is not an exhaustive summary of all hyphen rules. Visit pages 97-100 in your 6th Edition APA Manual, and specifically Tables 4.1 and 4.2, for more information
Quotation Marks & Italics
Quotation Marks: Explanation and Examples
As a general rule, use quotation marks only when quoting text word for word from another source.
According to Schunk (2012), “People agree that learning is important, but they hold different views on the causes, processes, and consequences of learning” (p. 3).
Note: place the closing quotation mark before the parenthetical citation. If the citation appears before the direct quote, then the ending punctuation is placed within the closing quotation, like this:
According to Schunk (2012, p. 3), “People agree that learning is important, but they hold different views on the causes, processes, and consequences of learning.”
If the direct quote is 40 words or longer, then you will use a block quote, not quotation marks, like this.
According to Schunk (2012, p. 3),
People agree that learning is important, but they hold different views on the causes, processes, and consequences of learning. There is no one definition of learning that is universally accepted by theorists, researchers, and practitioners (Shuell, 1986). Although people disagree about the precise nature of learning, the following is a general definition of learning that is consistent with this book’s cognitive focus and that captures the criteria most educational professionals consider central to learning.
You can also use quotation marks to indicate words that you consider or want your reader to consider ironic, slang, or invented/coined. However, do so sparingly as this can diminish the academic tone of your paper.
Analysts consider this “normal” behavior.
Note: After placing the word or phrase in quotation marks the first time, you will write it without quotation marks thereafter.
You will also use quotation marks around the titles of an article or chapter if you mention that title in the text of your paper.
Wolf’s (1978) article, “Social Validity: The Case for Subjective Measurement or How Applied Behavior Analysis is Finding its Heart” identified…
Italics: Explanation and Examples
Use italics for titles of periodicals, books, and movies.
Schunk’s (2012) book, Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective, pointed out several discrepancies in definitions of the word learning.
To identify the anchors, or definitions, of a scale. For example:
The scale ranged from 1 (do not agree) to 5 (strongly agree).
To indicate a letter, word, or phrase as a linguistic example:
The teacher focused on the letter A with the Kindergarten class.
In this lesson, we will distinguish between less and fewer.
To introduce a technical or key term.
The term behavior refers to several characteristics in this paper.
The term analyst refers to a professional who practices EBT.
Agreement
Noun-Pronoun Agreement: Explanation and Examples
Pronouns refer to nouns or take the place of that noun within a sentence (this helps you avoid repetition). Using the correct pronouns ensures your reader understands which noun you’re referring to.
Nouns and pronouns must agree in number. You must use a singular pronoun to refer to a singular noun, like this:
Jack Smith checked the grade book for his score on the final exam.
And you must use a plural pronoun to refer to a plural noun, like this:
The students checked the grade book for their scores on the final exam.
Whenever possible, use plural nouns to make general statements or observations. For example, if you are discussing traits of a group of analysts, educators, counselors, etc., use plural nouns to do so:
Correct:
Counseling students must complete an internship during their program.
Incorrect:
A counseling student must complete an internship during their program.
NOTE: The words everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns
NOTE: Nouns and pronouns must also agree in person, or point of view. According to APA, you should use the first-person pronoun to refer to yourself, as you do not want to confuse the reader by referring to yourself in the third person. However, specific programs and instructors here at TCSPP might place preference on students using the third person to refer to themselves. See here for more information on pronouns.
Subject-Verb Agreement: Explanation and Examples
Subjects and verbs must agree in number (singular or plural).
If a sentence has a singular subject, the sentence’s verb must also be singular; like this:
The clinician writes client notes every day.
If a subject is plural, the verb must also be plural, like this:
The clinicians write client notes every day.
NOTE: When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.
The clinicians and the social workers each take meticulous notes.
If the sentence has more than one verb, the verbs throughout the sentence must agree with the subject.
The patient completes an initial intake and then receives placement recommendations.
If the sentence has a phrase or clause between the subject and the verb, the verb must still agree with the subject, like this.
The clinician, as well as the social worker and medical doctors, is a critical component of the care team.
NOTE: The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
Use a singular verb with noncount nouns.
Depression is a common diagnosis.
NOTE: Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered singular and take a singular verb. Some examples are group, team, committee, family, and class.
Pronouns
Pronouns are a lexical category of words that refer to a noun that takes the place of another noun; more specifically to manuscript writing, pronouns replace a noun that has already been introduced recently in a body of text in order to avoid repetition or redundancy and to improve readability.
General Pronoun Rules
Who v. That
Who v. Whom
APA-SPECIFIC PRONOUN RULES
APA has specific rules regarding certain types of pronoun usage in attributions, gendered reference.
Attribution
As the author or primary investigator of a research study or experiment, avoid the use of third person pronouns to refer to yourself and the steps in your methodology. When referring to the experiment steps, use a personal pronoun to avoid ambiguity in relation to other authors referenced in your citations.
Gendered Pronouns
APA recommends that researchers avoid the use of the generic ‘he’ to refer to both sexes as it contributes to writing biases (see our section on reducing writing bias for more information). To avoid using generic ‘he’, APA recommends pluralizing nouns whenever possible in order to utilize the gender-neutral ‘they’. For example:
Use of S/He or Singular They
APA does not recommend the use of either pronoun-combinations such as s/he or singular they. S/he can be distracting and confusing to a reader, and singular they is viewed as too informal grammatically at this time. Instead, APA recommends options such as:
Pluralize the generic nouns.
Reword the sentence concisely to omit the pronoun.
Use he or she, his or her, etc.; however, this option should be used sparingly as it creates wordiness.
Modifiers & Adverbs
MODIFIERS
The APA Style Manual recommends that writers be wary of the following common modifier and adverb writing errors as they can obscure meaning or clarity of language.
Misplaced Modifiers
A misplaced modifier refers to an adjective or adverb element that has been placed in a sentence in an abnormal location that obscures the meaning of the sentence. APA recommends placing a modifying element as closely as possible to the word(s) it modifies in order to avoid this error.
Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier refers to an adjective or adverb element that has no direct referent in the sentence and obscures the meaning of the sentence. APA states that many of these errors arise from Passive Voice usage and recommends the use of Active Voice in order to avoid this error.
ADVERBS
Placement and Necessity
APA recognizes that adverbs such as fortunately, similarly, certainly, consequently, conversely, and regrettably can be used as introductory elements to sentences; however, the manual advises they be omitted unless there would be a loss of meaning.
If they are used, the manual recommends that the form of the adverb match that of a transitional element rather than an adverbial modifier. This is due to the risk for misplaced modifiers in alternative adverbial placement. Essentially, the ‘ly’ suffix of the adverb is omitted and other words are added if necessary to construct a grammatical element. Here are some examples:
Parallel Structure
Subject-Verb Agreement: Explanation and Examples
According to the APA (2010, p. 84), parallel construction means writers present “parallel ideas in a parallel or coordinate form.”
What does this mean?
In essence, it means each part of your sentence must work grammatically, or be parallel, before and after the coordinating conjunction.
Writers tend to lose parallelism when using coordinating conjunctions in pairs (such as between…and, both…and, neither…nor, either…or, not only…but also) as well as when listing phrases.
Between…and
Correct:
I recorded the difference between the number of times students said they accomplished the first task and the number of times students said they accomplished the second task.
Incorrect:
I recorded the difference between the number of times students said they accomplished the first task and the second task.
Not Only, But Also
Correct:
Not surprisingly, the scores on the midterm predicted not only student performance overall but also student performance on the final.
Incorrect:
Not surprisingly, not only did the scores on the midterm predict performance overall but also student performance on the final.
Both…and
Correct:
The terms of the contract were difficult both to understand and to carry out.
Incorrect:
The terms of the contract were both difficult to understand and carry out.
Neither…Nor; Either…Or
Correct:
Neither the questions on the quiz nor the questions on the midterm appeared on the final.
Incorrect:
Neither the questions on the quiz nor to the midterm appeared on the final.
Listing
The following list exhibits parallel construction:
To pass the class, students must complete every assignment on time, must participate at least twice per week in the online discussion, and must give an oral presentation during the last week of class.
How do we know? When we break it down to match each element of the list with the root of the sentence, it reads like this:
To pass the class, students must complete every assignment on time.
To pass the class, students must participate at least twice per week in the online discussion.
To pass the class, students must give an oral presentation during the last week of class.
Here’s an example of a similar list that is lacking parallel construction:
Students who wish to graduate on time should consider taking a full course load each semester, should make sure to study on the weekends, and they shouldn’t party too hard.
How do we know it’s not parallel? Let’s break it down:
Students who wish to graduate on time should consider taking a full course load each semester.
Students who wish to graduate on time should make sure to study on the weekends
Students who wish to graduate on time they shouldn’t party too hard.
See how this last sentence isn’t grammatically correct? That’s how we know the list isn’t parallel. Luckily, to make it parallel is a simple fix:
Students who wish to graduate on time should consider taking a full course load each semester, should make sure to study on the weekends, and shouldn’t party too hard.
Maintaining parallelism means including verbs and preposition within each part, like this:
To pass the class, students need to complete every assignment on time, to participate at least twice per week in the online discussion, and to give an oral presentation during the last week of class.